Money Laundering

Federal Law:

The Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986, Pub.L. No. 99-570, created the offense of "money laundering," which is chargeable as a violation of 18 U.S.C. §§ 1956 or 1957. Violations of the mail or wire fraud statutes constitute "specified unlawful activity" that may form the cornerstone of a money laundering charge. See §§ 1956(c)(7)(A), 1957(f)(3), and 1961(1)(B) ("Specified unlawful activity" is defined as any act or activity constituting an offense listed in section 1961(1), which includes both mail and wire fraud statutes.). See United States v. Hare, 49 F.3d 447, 451-52 (8th Cir. 1995), cert. denied, 116 S.Ct. 211 (1995); United States v. Massey, 48 F.3d 1560, 1565-67 (10th Cir.), cert. denied, 115 S.Ct. 2628 (1995); United States v. Smith, 44 F.3d 1259, 1264-65 (4th Cir.), cert. d ied, 115 S.Ct. 1970 (1995).

A conviction for money laundering may result in a much more severe sentence than a conviction based solely upon a mail or wire fraud. The government may also seek criminal or civil forfeiture under 18 U.S.C. §§ 981 and 982.

Section 1956(a) defines three types of criminal conduct: domestic money laundering transactions (§ 1956(a)(1)); international money laundering transactions (§ 1956(a)(2)); and undercover "sting" money laundering transactions (§ 1956(a)(3)).

To be criminally culpable under 18 U.S.C. § 1956(a)(1), a defendant must conduct or attempt to conduct a financial transaction, knowing that the property involved in the financial transaction represents the proceeds of some unlawful activity, with one of the four specific intents discussed below, and the property must in fact be derived from a specified unlawful activity. The actual source of the funds must be one of the specified forms of criminal activity identified by the statute, in 18 U.S.C. § 1956(c)(7), or those incorporated by reference from the RICO statute (18 U.S.C. § 1961(1)). Section 1956(c)(7)(B) includes in the list of specified unlawful activity certain offenses against a foreign nation. Thus, proceeds of certain crimes committed in another country may constitute proceeds of a specified unlawful activity for purposes of the money laundering statutes.

To prove a violation of § 1956(a)(1), the prosecutor must prove, either by direct or circumstantial evidence, that the defendant knew that the property involved was the proceeds of any felony under State, Federal or foreign law. The prosecutor need not show that the defendant knew the specific crime from which the proceeds were derived; the prosecutor must prove only that the defendant knew that the property was illegally derived in some way. See § 1956(c)(1). The prosecutor must also prove that the defendant initiated or concluded, or participated in initiating or concluding, a financial transaction. A "transaction" is defined in § 1956(c)(3) as a purchase, sale, loan, pledge, gift, transfer, delivery, other disposition, and with respect to a financial institution, a deposit, withdrawal, transfer between accounts, loan, exchange of currency, extension of credit, purchase or sale safe-deposit box, or any other payment, transfer or delivery by, through or to a financial institution.

A "financial transaction" is defined in § 1956(c)(4) as a transaction which affects interstate or foreign commerce and: (1) involves the movement of funds by wire or by other means; (2) involves the use of a monetary instrument; or (3) involves the transfer of title to real property, a vehicle, a vessel or an aircraft; or (4) involves the use of a financial institution which is engaged in, or the activities of which affect, interstate or foreign commerce. The legislative history indicates, and several cases have held, that each separate financial transaction should be charged separately in an individual count. For example, if an individual earns $100,000 from offense. If he then withdraws $50,000, he commits a second offense. If he then purchases a car with the withdrawn $50,000, he commits a third offense. Each transaction should be charged in a separate count. Charging multiple financial transactions in a single count is duplicitous. See, e.g., United States v. Prescott, 42 F.3d 1165 (8th Cir. 1994); United States v. Conley, 826 F. Supp. 1536 (W.D. Pa. 1993).

In conducting the financial transaction, the defendant must have acted with one of the following four specific intents:

§ 1956(a)(1)(A)(i): intent to promote the carrying on of specified unlawful activity;
§ 1956(a)(1)(A)(ii): intent to engage in tax evasion or tax fraud;
§ 1956(a)(1)(B)(i): knowledge that the transaction was designed to conceal or disguise the nature, location, source, ownership or control of proceeds of the specified unlawful activity; or
§ 1956(a)(1)(B)(ii): knowledge that the transaction was designed to avoid a transaction reporting requirement under State or Federal law [e.g., in violation of 31 U.S.C. §§ 5313 (Currency Transaction Reports) or 5316 (Currency and Monetary Instruments Reports), or 26 U.S.C. § 6050I (Internal Revenue Service Form 8300)].

Prosecutions pursuant to 18 U.S.C. § 1956(a)(2) arise when monetary instruments or funds are transported, transmitted or transferred internationally, and the defendant acted with one of the requisite criminal intents (i.e., promoting, concealing, or avoiding reporting requirements). The intent to engage in tax violations is not included in § 1956(a)(2).

If the transportation, transmission or transfer was conducted with the intent to conceal the proceeds of specified unlawful activity or to avoid a reporting requirement, the prosecutor must show that the defendant knew the monetary instrument or funds represented the proceeds of some form of unlawful activity. However, if the transportation, transmission or transfer is conducted with the intent to promote the carrying on of specified unlawful activity, the prosecutor need not show that the funds or monetary instruments were actually derived from any criminal activity.

The transportation, transmission or transfer must cross the border -- either originating or terminating in the United States. That term includes all means of transporting funds or monetary instruments, including wire or electronic funds transfers, and the transfer of currency, checks, money orders, bearer securities and negotiable instruments.

Section 1956(a)(3) relates to undercover operations where the financial transaction involves property represented to be proceeds of specified unlawful activity. The proceeds in § 1956(a)(3) cases are not actually derived from a real crime; they are undercover funds supplied by the Government. The representation must be made by or authorized by a Federal officer with authority to investigate or prosecute money laundering violations. The representation may also be made by another at the direction of or approval of a Federal officer. It should be noted that the specific intent provisions in § 1956(a)(3) are slightly different from those in § 1956(a)(1). First, the intent to violate the tax laws is not included in this subsection. Second, subsections 1956(a)(3)(B) and (C) require that the transaction be conducted with the intent to conceal or disguise the nature, location, source, ownership or control of the property or to avoid a transaction reporting requirement, respectively, in contrast to subsections 1956(a)(1)(B)(i) and (ii), which only require that defendant know that the transaction is designed, in whole or in part, to accomplish one of those ends.

Violations of § 1956 have a maximum potential twenty year prison sentence and a $500,000 fine or twice the amount involved in the transaction, whichever is greater. The general sentencing provisions in 18 U.S.C. §§ 3551-3571 should also be consulted.

There is also a civil penalty provision in § 1956(b) which may be pursued as a civil cause of action. Under this provision, persons who engage in violations of subsections 1956(a)(1), (a)(2) or (a)(3) are liable to the United States for a civil penalty of not more than the greater of $10,000 or the value of the funds involved in the transaction. Copies of pleadings in § 1956(b) actions are available from the Section.

Prosecutions under 18 U.S.C. § 1957 arise when the defendant knowingly conducts a monetary transaction in criminally derived property in an amount greater than $10,000, which is in fact proceeds of a specified unlawful activity. Section 1957(f)(1) defines a monetary transaction as a "deposit, withdrawal, transfer, or exchange, in or affecting interstate or foreign commerce, of funds or a monetary instrument . . . by, through, or to a financial institution (as defined in section 1956 of this title), including any transaction that would be a financial transaction under section 1956(c)(4)(B) . . . ." Section 1957 carries a maximum penalty of ten years in prison and maximum fine of $250,000 or twice the value of the transaction. There is no civil penalty provision.

The most significant difference from § 1956 prosecutions is the intent requirement. Under § 1957, the four intents have been replaced with a $10,000 threshold amount for each non-aggregated transaction and the requirement that a financial institution be involved in the transaction. Although the prosecutor need not prove any intent to promote, conceal or avoid the reporting requirements, it still must be shown that the defendant knew the property was derived from some criminal activity and that the funds were in fact derived from a specified unlawful activity.

There is extraterritorial jurisdiction for violations of § 1956 if: (1) the transaction or series of related transactions exceeds $10,000; and (2) the laundering is by a United States citizen, or, if by a foreign national, the conduct occurs in part in the United States. See § 1956(f). There is extraterritorial jurisdiction for violations of § 1957 if the defendant is a United States person. See § 1957(d).

Sections 1956 and 1957 include "attempts" as well as completed offenses. Conspiracies are indictable under 18 U.S.C. § 1956(h). It should be noted that, in October 1992, Congress added § 1956(g), which provides a separate offense for money laundering conspiracy. Since Congress inadvertently added two sections designated as § 1956(g), the conspiracy provision was redesignated § 1956(h) in September 1994. The conspiracy provision in § 1956(h) is modeled after the conspiracy provision in 21 U.S.C. § 846. Thus, it should not be necessary to plead overt acts in the indictment. However, the Section recommends that overt acts be included in the indictment if practicable.

Laundering of monetary instruments

(a)
(1) Whoever, knowing that the property involved in a financial transaction represents the proceeds of some form of unlawful activity, conducts or attempts to conduct such a financial transaction which in fact involves the proceeds of specified unlawful activity -
(A)
(i) with the intent to promote the carrying on of specified unlawful activity; or
(ii) with intent to engage in conduct constituting a violation of section 7201 or 7206 of the Internal Revenue Code of 1986; or (B) knowing that the transaction is designed in whole or in part -
(i) to conceal or disguise the nature, the location, the source, the ownership, or the control of the proceeds of specified unlawful activity; or
(ii) to avoid a transaction reporting requirement under State or Federal law, shall be sentenced to a fine of not more than $500,000 or twice the value of the property involved in the transaction, whichever is greater, or imprisonment for not more than twenty years, or both.

(2) Whoever transports, transmits, or transfers, or attempts to transport, transmit, or transfer a monetary instrument or funds from a place in the United States to or through a place outside the United States or to a place in the United States from or through a place outside the United States -
(A) with the intent to promote the carrying on of specified unlawful activity; or
(B) knowing that the monetary instrument or funds involved in the transportation, transmission, or transfer represent the proceeds of some form of unlawful activity and knowing that such transportation, transmission, or transfer is designed in whole or in part -
(i) to conceal or disguise the nature, the location, the source, the ownership, or the control of the proceeds of specified unlawful activity; or
(ii) to avoid a transaction reporting requirement under State or Federal law,

shall be sentenced to a fine of not more than $500,000 or twice the value of the monetary instrument or funds involved in the transportation, transmission, or transfer, whichever is greater, or imprisonment for not more than twenty years, or both. For the purpose of the offense described in subparagraph (B), the defendant's knowledge may be established by proof that a law enforcement officer represented the matter specified in subparagraph (B) as true, and the defendant's subsequent statements or actions indicate that the defendant believed such representations to be true.

(3) Whoever, with the intent -
(A) to promote the carrying on of specified unlawful activity;
(B) to conceal or disguise the nature, location, source, ownership, or control of property believed to be the proceeds of specified unlawful activity; or
(C) to avoid a transaction reporting requirement under State or Federal law, conducts or attempts to conduct a financial transaction involving property represented to be the proceeds of specified unlawful activity, or property used to conduct or facilitate specified unlawful activity, shall be fined under this title or imprisoned for not more than 20 years, or both. For purposes of this paragraph and paragraph (2), the term ''represented'' means any representation made by a law enforcement officer or by another person at the direction of, or with the approval of, a Federal official authorized to investigate or prosecute violations of this section.

(b) Penalties. -
(1) In general. - Whoever conducts or attempts to conduct a transaction described in subsection (a)(1) or (a)(3), or section 1957, or a transportation, transmission, or transfer described in subsection (a)(2), is liable to the United States for a civil penalty of not more than the greater of -
(A) the value of the property, funds, or monetary instruments involved in the transaction; or
(B) $10,000.

Money laundering and related financial crime.

- The term ''money laundering and related financial crime'' - (A) means the movement of illicit cash or cash equivalent proceeds into, out of, or through the United States, or into, out of, or through United States financial institutions, as defined in section 5312 of title 31, United States Code; or (B) has the meaning given that term (or the term used for an equivalent offense) under State and local criminal statutes pertaining to the movement of illicit cash or cash equivalent proceeds

State Law:

(a) A person commits an offense if the person knowingly:
(1) acquires or maintains an interest in, receives, conceals, possesses, transfers, or transports the proceeds of criminal activity;
(2) conducts, supervises, or facilitates a transaction involving the proceeds of criminal activity; or
(3) invests, expends, or receives, or offers to invest, expend, or receive, the proceeds of criminal activity or funds that the person believes are the proceeds of criminal activity.

(b) For purposes of Subsection (a)(3) of this section, a person is presumed to believe that funds are the proceeds of criminal activity if a peace officer or a person acting at the direction of a peace officer represents to the person that the funds are proceeds of criminal activity, regardless of whether the peace officer or person acting at the peace officer's direction discloses the person's status as a peace officer or that the person is acting at the direction of a peace officer.
(c) It is a defense to prosecution under this section that the person acted with intent to facilitate the lawful seizure, forfeiture, or disposition of funds or other legitimate law enforcement purpose pursuant to the laws of this state or the United States.
(d) It is a defense to prosecution under this section that the transaction was necessary to preserve a person's right to representation as guaranteed by the Sixth Amendment of the United States Constitution and by Article 1, Section 10, of the Texas Constitution or that the funds were received as bona fide legal fees by a licensed attorney and at the time of their receipt, the attorney did not have actual knowledge that the funds were derived from criminal activity.
(e) An offense under this section is:
(1) a felony of the third degree if the value of the funds is $3,000 or more but less than $20,000;
(2) a felony of the second degree if the value of the funds is $20,000 or more but less than $100,000; or
(3) a felony of the first degree if the value of the funds is $100,000 or more

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